The University of Southampton

Tag: rainforest

Old Macdonald Overfarmed: How Increasing Global Agriculture leads to Deforestation

Posted on by Kieran Woof

The Rainforests are taking the hit from our need to eat…

Almost anyone could tell you that the world’s population is increasing – and rapidly so. Naturally, this requires us to produce more and more food with which to supply all of these new faces.

However, the constant expansion of farms leads to the constant decline of forest areas, which in turn causes detrimental effects on our environment as a whole. The main region affected by these practices is the Amazon Rainforest, well known for housing around half of all the species in the entire world, as well as acting as one of Earth’s biggest Carbon sinks.

This means that its destruction will lead to a huge reduction in biodiversity, as well as releasing vast amounts of trapped Carbon Dioxide into the atmosphere, which then contributes to Global Warming. As well as the pollution aspect, deforestation may also lead to the total extinction of many tree species. This may be caused by directly chopping these trees down, or by the reduction in animals which disperse the seeds, via eating the fruit they produce (Montoya, 2008).

Image result for rainforest deforestation for farming
Farmland is rapidly encroaching on our planets forested areas (Source: Emaze)

So how big is the problem?

It has been estimated that around 350 Million Hectares of Tropical Rainforest has been converted for other land use. (Lal, 2008) Furthermore, 91% of all land deforested in the Amazon since 1970 has been used for livestock pasture! (FAO, 2006). By Converting this land, not only are we losing trees in the long term, but we are also inhibiting their possible reintroduction. This is because the soil cleared for farming often rapidly degrades due to reduced stability and intense rainfall (Kibblewhite, 2008)

The problem here is that we cannot allow people to go without food in order to save our planet’s trees. What needs to change instead is the farming technique. In farm areas bordering rainforests, the method of farming is much more likely to be expansive rather than intensive (López-Carr, 2013). This essentially means that farmers focus on growing as much of the crop as possible, rather than trying to obtain more successful growth from a smaller patch. Essentially, this leads to a lot of land being wasted, with neither tropical forests or crops actually growing on it!

So what does the Future Hold?

However, there are reasons to be optimistic! A key success story in attempts to reduce deforestation, whilst keeping high crop production, is seen in the Soybean industry. This used to be seen as a major detrimental industry to the Amazon Rainforest. However, following boycotts from several large companies, a 2015 study showed that only around 1% of all soybean production had come as a result of deforestation, despite the industry expanding over 1.3 million hectares! (Garrett, 2016).

The Soybean – An unlikely success story (Source: Plant Village)

If this technique can be implemented for other farmland crops, then we can hopefully provide enough food to keep the growing population fed, as well as protecting one of the worlds most important ecological areas.

(Word Count – 485)

References

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS . (2006). Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental issues and Problems.

Garrett, R, Rausch, L. (2016). Green for gold: social and ecological tradeoffs influencing the sustainability of the Brazilian soy industry. The Journal of Peasant Studies. 43 (2)

Kibblewhite, M.G, Ritz, K, Swift, M.J. (2008). Soil health in agricultural systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1492), 685-701.

Lal, R. (2008). Carbon Sequestration. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1492), 815-830.

López-Carr, D, Burgdorfer, J. (2013). Deforestation Drivers: Population, Migration, and Tropical Land Use. Environment. 55 (1)

Montoya, D. (2008). Habitat loss, dispersal, and the probability of extinction of tree species. Communicative and Integrative Biology. 1 (2), 146-147.



Kuntuk’s Last Stand

Posted on by Lydia Campbell-Black
Flanged Male Orangutan in Tanjung Putting National Park, Kalimantan (Campbell-Black, 2016)
Flanged Male Orangutan in Tanjung Putting National Park, Kalimantan (Campbell-Black, 2016)

Sitting on the end of a creaky old jetty with its peeling blue paint sits Kuntuk, a magnificent, flanged male orangutan. His eyes staring hard at you with a look that could only have one meaning: stay away! His gaze is steady as his hand clutches the pole next to him, his hunched frame guarding the entrance to the rainforest behind him, with the light illuminating his vibrant orange coat.

If only this was enough to protect the pristine forests, peatlands and all their inhabitants behind him from the companies and corporations hacking them down to make way for plantations of rubber and palm oil.

The destruction of natural habitats in Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo) doesn’t only impact the orangutans that swing through its trees however, it effects everything around.

There is large scale biodiversity loss through the illegal logging of threatened tree species iron-wood and ramin; and, removes the homes for rare species like clouded leopards, bearded pigs, macaques, slow loris and tarsiers.

picture1
Storm’s Stork (Fink, K.W., n.d.), Clouded Leopard (Stone, L.M.,2004) and Proboscis Monkey (Fletcher & Baylis, 2002)

 

The rainforests of Kalimantan are also home to the richest swamp habitats in the tropics and 34% of all flora and fauna are unique to the island (Djoko Susilo 1997).

These peatland swamps provide vital homes for many species, including proboscis monkeys, the rare Storm’s stork and a vast number of endemic fish species. They are, however, unsuitable for growing most crops and many are therefore cleared and drained for agricultural use through slash and burn practices. The dry peat  is highly flammable and difficult to extinguish once burning, this leads to fires spreading out of control (Goldammer & Seibert 1990).

The burning of the peat also releases massive amounts of stored Carbon into the atmosphere; 75% of Indonesia’s CO2 emissions are due to change in land cover from forests to plantations or barren land (Carlson et al. 2013). This is adding to the problem of global warming through greenhouse gases (Someshwar et al. 2010).

Sabangau Forest burning (Capilla, B.R. & OuTrop, 2015)
Sabangau Forest burning (Capilla, B.R. & OuTrop, 2015)

Extensive land clearing in the past caused wildfires during the 1980’s that destroyed  5 million hectares of rainforest in Kalimantan and killed thousands of plants and animals (Goldammer & Seibert 1990). Since then, between 1990 and 2010, palm oil plantations have expanded to 538,346km2, 90% of which were previously forested.

Forest cover directly influences rainfall so its removal leads to less rain and drier land, allowing for more forest fires (Leighton, 2002). The fires remove nutrients from the soil making it difficult for plants to recolonise the area (Page et al. 2000). Without the vegetation cover or waterlogged ground, the vertebrate and invertebrate species cannot return, producing barren land useful only for more plantations.

Without the rainforests and peatlands, there is no home for the orangutans and other unique forms of life, meaning they will simply fade out of existence and this photo of Kuntuk will just serve as a haunting reminder of yet another species wiped out by human activity.

 

References

Campbell-Black, A., 2016. Kuntuk, the male flanged orangutan. [Photo]

Capilla, B.R. & OuTrop, 2015. Sabangau Forest burning. Bali Spirit Festival. [Photo]

Carlson, K.M. et al., 2013. Carbon emissions from forest conversion by Kalimantan oil palm plantations. Nature Clim. Change, 3(3), pp.283–287.

Djoko Susilo, H., 1997. The Tanjung Puting National Park and Biosphere Reserve, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation.

Fink, K.W., n.d. Storm’s Stork. ARKive. Ardea Images.

Fletcher & Baylis, 2002. Proboscis Monkey. ARKive. Wildside Photography.

Goldammer, J.G. & Seibert, B., 1990. The Impact of Droughts and Forest Fires on Tropical Lowland Rain Forest of East Kalimantan. Fire in the Tropical Biota: Ecosystem Processes and Global Challenges, pp. 11–31.

Leighton, D. M., 2002. Illegal Logging Effects on Indonesian Biodiversity. ABC NEWS.

Page, S.E. et al., 2000. Impact of the 1997 fires on the peatlands of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. 11th International Peat Congress, pp.962–970.

Someshwar, S., Boer, R. & Conrad, E., 2010. Managing Peatland Fire Risk in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, Washington DC.

Stone, L.M., 2004, Clouded Leopard. ARKive. Nature Picture Library.

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Roads Reduce Role of Rainforests

Posted on by Anonymous

Rainforests are considered ‘the finest celebration of nature ever known on the planet’ yet increasing pressure to develop new roads for economic growth is their biggest threat.

Tropical rainforests cover 2-7% of Earth. They support 170,000 plant species. Their small area but tremendous biodiversity makes them global hotspots for conservation funds.

High levels of rainfall and constantly high temperatures creates a unique habitat. Many trees packed closely together creates a closed canopy. As a result, the rainforest is dark and humid. There is lower light, wind and temperatures as a result that species need to be specially adapted to in order to thrive (Laurance et al. 2009).

New developments threaten this structure. Species can either respond and adapt to new conditions or face the risk of extinction.

Rainforests are especially vulnerable to economic pressures. Roughly 2.5 million hectares (25,000km2) of the Brazilian Amazon are lost every year through deforestation. Economic growth is often the main driver for habitat loss. If the current rates continue, within 50 years, global rainforests are likely to be lost forever.

Many activities lead to deforestation but roads are seen as especially detrimental (Figure 1). Opportunities for logging, oil and mining often drive the development of new roads (Goosem 2007). Previously untouched areas are now accessible via roads and are now vulnerable to widespread biodiversity loss (Brudvig et al. 2015; Haddad et al. 2015).

Figure 1. New roads create barriers between previously connected species. Barriers for reproduction and pollination ultimately lead to species loss.
Figure 1. New roads create barriers between previously connected species. Barriers for reproduction and pollination ultimately lead to species loss.

The issue is not only minor access roads but large highways built for an increasingly urban world. The Trans-Amazonian Highway in Brazil is 4000km. This only makes it the third longest highway in Brazil (Figure 2).

Destruction of the rainforest is therefore a primary cause of plant biodiversity loss. Roads will change rainforest habitats from large and pristine to small and isolated. New edges are created alongside roads. Species are impacted more than this than widespread deforestation. This process of habitat fragmentation creates smaller, isolated populations and plant species are lost (Linert 2004; Gossem et al. 2011; Weiner et al. 2014).

Figure 2. Trans-Amazonian Highway is among one of many road developments through tropical rainforests that result in widespread deforestation and loss of important plant species that play vital roles in regulating carbon dioxide levels on Earth.
Figure 2. Trans-Amazonian Highway is among one of many road developments through tropical rainforests that result in widespread deforestation and loss of important plant species that play vital roles in regulating carbon dioxide levels on Earth.

Overall, trees lost from the rainforest allows light to reach the ground that was not able to before. Shade preferring species are no longer the best suited. Those plants that thrive on more light become more successful (Laurance et al. 2009). Species that were one dominant no longer are.

These changes to the surrounding environment impact important interacting species. Smaller patches with different conditions attract fewer plant species and therefore fewer pollinators. Pollinating species are likely to decline as a result, threatening their own survival and that of the plants (Aguilar et al. 2006).

If reproductive output declines, the number of species surviving to continue the population declines. The negative cycle continues until a whole species is extinct. Community structure is altered and important interactions are lost.

Each plant species, rare or common, plays an important role in regulating carbon, purifying water and stabilising soil qualities. Loss of species variety creates areas that are extremely similar. Soon, rainforests will lose their functional role and contribute less to the global system.

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REFERENCES

Aguilar, R., Ashworth, L., Galetto, L. & Aizen, M. A. (2006) Plant reproductive susceptibility to habitat fragmentation: review and synthesis through a meta-analysis. Ecology Letters, 9, 968-980.

Brudvig, L. A., Damschen, E. I., Haddad, N. M., Levey, D. J. & Tewksbury, J. J. (2015) The influence of habitat fragmentation on multiple plant-animal interactions and plant reproduction. Ecology, 96, 2669-2678.

Cunningham, S. A. (2000) Effects of habitat fragmentation on the reproductive ecology of four plant species in mallee woodland. Conservation Biology, 14, 758-768.

Goosem, M. (2007) Fragmentation impacts caused by roads through rainforests. Current Science, 93, 1587-1595.

Haddad, N. M., Brudvig, L. A., Clobert, J., Davies, K. F., Gonzalez, A., Holt, R. D., Lovejoy, T. E., Sexton, J. O., Austin, M. P., Collins, C. D., Cook, W. M., Damschen, E. I., Ewers, R. M., Foster, B. L., Jenkins, C. N., King, A. J., Laurance, W. F., Levey, D. J., Margules, C. R., Melbourne, B. A., Nicholls, A. O., Orrock, J. L., Song, D. A. & Townshend, J. R. (2015) Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth’s ecosystems. Sci. Adv.

Laurance, W. F., Goosem, M. & Laurance, S. G. W. (2009) Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests. TREE, 1149, 1-11.

Lienert, J. (2004) Habitat fragmentation effects on fitness of plant populations – a review. Journal for Nature Conservation, 12, 53-72.

Weiner, C. N., Werner, M., Linsenmair, K. E. & Bluthgen, N. (2014) Land-use impacts on plant-pollinator networks: interaction strength and specialisation predict pollinator declines. Ecology, 95, 466-474.